
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




016 065 421 1 



SAFE FOUNDRY 
PRACTICE 



THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

HARTFORD, CONNEaiCUT 



Reasons for selecting The TRAVELERS for 

Workmen's Compensation 
and Employers' Liability 

INSURANCE AND SERVICE 

It is the Greatest Casualty Company. 

It has splendid resources, conservatively 

managed. 

It is forward-looking in its ideas. 

It provides unsurpassed service in the ad- 
ministration of claims and the prevention 
of accidents. 

It is a multiple line company affording those 
who require several kinds of insurance an 
opportunity to obtain them all in the same 
company — and thus obtain the highest possi- 
ble quality of service, Entirely Free, 



The Travelers has spent more than $6,500,000 
for the prevention of accidents by inspection 



The Travelers Insurance Company 
The Travelers Indemnity Company 

HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT 



Lines written by The TRAVELERS 

include LIFE, ACCIDENT and HEALTH, GROUP, WORKMEN'S 
COMPENSATION, EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY, PUBLIC LIABIL- 
ITY, AUTOMOBILE, AIRCRAFT, STEAM BOILER, ENGINE, 
ELEVATOR, BURGLARY and PLATE GLASS 



SAFE FOUNDRY 
PRACTICE 



THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT 



21,W1. 12-29-' 19. 



Copyright, 1920, by 

The Travelers Insurance Company, 

Hartford, Connecticut 



g)r;i A570615 
JUL "3 iv^^J 



^^o 



PREFACE 

The foundry, viewing it from all angles, presents 
one of the greatest problems in the industrial world. 
The fact that the production of castings depends not 
only on a mechanical process, but also on a chemical 
process, makes it specially difficult to fasten upon any 
individual the responsibility for imperfect work. And 
yet there is a definite (even though unassignable) 
reason for the loss of every defective casting produced, 
- — some one member of the department failed in proper- 
ly performing his part of the work. Every man must 
therefore be taught to appreciate the importance of 
his own particular task, and must be impressed with 
the necessity of performing that task conscientiously, 
and as correctly and efficiently as he can. There should 
be a spirit of cooperation as earnest and sincere as 
that which prevails in a beehive, where every worker 
performs the task of the moment with singleness of pur- 
pose, and with no thought or motive other than the 
production of the best final result, from the united 
labors of all. The development of a point of view of 
this nature among the men will also have a profound 
effect in the way of reducing accidents, — a greater 
effect, in fact, than could be realized by any other 
single means. 

One of the problems that must receive special 
consideration in connection w^ith accident-prevention 
work in foundries relates to the class of persons em- 
ployed. It is not necessary to employ skilled labor for 



iv THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

all the operations in the foundry, and for that reason 
a certain portion of the work is intrusted to unskilled 
help, — to men, namely, who do not understand the 
necessity for safety methods. The most practical and 
effective way of dealing with a situation of this kind 
is to adopt the team-work idea — that is, to teach co- 
operation — and to introduce a well-organized safety 
department that will educate the men to the extent 
of developing in them sound and correct accident- 
prevention ideals. Useful practical suggestions for 
accomplishing this, and for making the accident-pre- 
vention work effective, are given in a booklet entitled 
''Orgamzation in Safety Work'\ which is published by 
the Engineering and Inspection Division of The 
Travelers Insurance Company. 

Even the best-equipped, most orderly, and most 
effectively organized foundry is not free from accidents, 
and it is too much to expect that complete immunity 
will ever be possible. The experience of many concerns 
that have adopted safety methods in their foundries 
shows, however, that it is possible to eliminate a 
large proportion of the commoner causes of accidents, 
without much expense and without any serious distur- 
bance of existing conditions. The Engineering and 
Inspection Division of The Travelers Insurance 
Company, in the course of its extensive experience with 
foundries, has given a great deal of study to this subject, 
and the recommendations and suggestions that it has 
made in the course of its practical inspection work 
have been well received by foundry managers, and have 
been particularly effective in bringing about better and 
safer conditions. The present booklet, based upon this 
study and experience, contains some of the suggestions 



PREFACE V 

that have been found to be most serviceable and 
important in deahng with the accident-prevention 
problem in its broader phases. Every foundry has im- 
portant special safety problems of its own, which must 
be dealt with effectively if the best results are to be ob- 
tained; but to include all features of this kind would 
swell this booklet to such dimensions that its effective- 
ness and usefulness would be impaired. We have 
therefore confined our attention to danger-points of 
wide and almost universal occurrence. 

There are few machines in foundries in comparison 
with the number in industrial plants of many other 
kinds. The machines that are used, however, must be 
provided with guards at all points where accidents 
might occur, and the necessary special guards have 
been described in more or less detail in the following 
pages. The construction and arrangement of the var- 
ious forms of guards for belts and pulleys are not fully 
explained, but it should be understood that these are 
to comply with the standards approved by the Indus- 
trial Compensation Rating Bureau. The Engineering 
and Inspection Division of The Travelers Insurance 
Company will furnish upon request, copies of an 
illustrated pamphlet entitled ''Industrial Standards,'' 
which clearly explains the requirements of the Bureau. 

In the main, the present booklet deals with iron 
foundries; but we have also included certain special 
hazards that are encountered chiefly in foundries where 
other metals are cast. 

The Travelers Insurance Company, 

Hartford, Connecticut. 



CONTENTS 



Page 



Introductory 

Clothing 

Shoes and leggings 

Eyc-protcctors . 

Gloves .... 

Aprons and rubber boots 

Ladles .... 

Flasks and molds 

Crucibles .... 

Cupolas .... 

Traveling cranes 

Chains and hooks 

Wire-rope slings 

Slings in general 

Hoisting apparatus in general 

Tumbling barrels 

Sand mixers and sifters 

Automatic molding machines 



1 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
5 

16 
19 
30 
35 
44 
45 
46 
47 
47 
49 
50 



THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



Chipping department 


._ . 50 


Grinding wheels .... 


52 


Compressed air . 


52 


Sand-blasting . . . . „ 


53 


Illumination ..... 


56 


The foundry yard .... 


58 



SAFE FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



Introductory. According to the best statistics 
available, it appears that about eighty per cent, of the 
injuries received in foundries are in the nature of burns 
of greater or lesser severity; the remaining twenty per 
cent, being caused by defective hooks, chains, slings, 
flasks, mold-boards, bottom-boards, and other equip- 
ment, and by unguarded machinery, by falls and falling 
objects, and, indirectly, by inadequate illumination, 
poor ventilation, and other similar general conditions. 
Suitable clothing and shoes will materially reduce the 
severity of foundry burns, and w^ill entirely eliminate 
many of them. Approved protection of this kind is 
described in the following pages, together with safe- 
guards for various machines, and advice is also given 
with regard to precautions to be taken for the preven- 
tion of accidents in handling the various tools and 
appliances that are used in foundries. 

Clothing. Suitable clothing is an important factor 
in protecting foundry workers from burns. Ordinary 
cotton shirts and overalls afford but little protection, 
because molten metal burns through them almost in- 
stantly; and although the legs and feet are the parts 
of the body most often burned in the foundry, it is 
advisable for the men to wear shirts (as well as trousers) 
made of a thick, stout, hard-finished material, such 
as khaki (twilled cotton), which will shed the molten 
metal to some extent. The bottoms of the trouser-legs 



2 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

should never be rolled or folded up, and there should 
be no other folds, nor any creases or pockets in the 
clothing, in which molten metal or highly-heated 
particles of any kind may lodge. Torn garments and 
those having holes in them are unsafe, and should 
not be worn. Woolen undershirts furnish the best 
protection against **shot" or molten metal, but on 
account of the intense heat to which foundrymen 
are exposed it is hard to get the men to wear them, 
particularly during the summer months. 

Shoes and Leggings. The number of burns re- 
ceived by foundry workers on the feet and legs may be 
greatly reduced or almost entirely eliminated by the 
use of proper shoes and leggings. These should be 
worn by every foundry worker who has to handle 
molten metal, or who is exposed to it, and no one should 
be permitted to work without them, where the danger 
of such burns exists. Strong, substantial, well-made 
shoes of the "congress" type are the most suitable for 
general wear in foundries, because when they are in 
good condition they contain no holes through which 
molten metal may enter, while in laced and buttoned 
shoes there are many such openings. Moreover, con- 
gress shoes may be quickly and easily removed when 
hot metal is spilled upon them. Low-cut or Oxford 
shoes should never be worn by foundry workers. 

Suitable leggings are almost as necessary as good, 
serviceable shoes. Under some conditions safety re- 
quires that the leggings be of asbestos or leather, but 
for general foundry work canvas or twilled cotton of 
good quality may be used. These materials will meet 
with all but the most severe requirements. The leg- 
gings, like the shoes previously described, should be 



EYE-PROTECTORS 3 

fastened in such a way that they may be quickly and 
easily removed, and ordinary buckles are therefore un- 
suitable. Laces and buttons are likewise unsatisfac- 
tory, and any type of fastening that forms projections 
upon which molten metal may lodge does not afford 
the best sort of protection. Flat spring clasps, properly 
inclosed, at the top and bottom of the leggings, are the 
most satisfactory type of fastening devised up to the 
present time. The leggings should completely incase 
the legs from the knees down, and should fit snugly, 
especially at the top, to prevent the entrance of molten 
metal at this point. 

Eye-protectors. It is extremely important to pro- 
tect the eyes of foundrymen against the intense light 
and heat from molten metal and from welding flames, 
and also against dust and grit, flying chips, and molten 
metal that may be splashed about. Eye-protectors 
(also called ''safety glasses" and "goggles") of various 
types are now available for all the different hazardous 
operations in foundries. To insure comfort, eye-pro- 
tectors should fit well, and should be light in weight 
and easil}^ adjustable for size. They should be pro- 
vided with side protectors composed of metal screens or 
of perforated leather, to stop flying particles and small 
objects that might otherwise enter the eyes from the 
sides. The lenses should not be made of ordinary 
window glass, but in order to prevent serious eye strains 
they should be made of clear glass without flaws, and 
polished on both sides. They should also be strongly 
framed, so that pieces will not enter the eyes in case the 
lenses are broken. The lenses of eye-protectors that are 
to be used by furnacemen, welders, and others whose 
eyes are exposed to unusually brilliant light-sources 



4 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

should be suitably colored, to temper the intensity 
of the rays and to exclude those that are specially 
harmful to the eyes. 

Experience has shown that where eye-protectors 
have been provided and worn faithfully, there has been 
a marked decrease in the number of eye injuries. 

Gloves. Cupola men and others working where 
the heat is intense must provide protection for their 
hands and arms. Gloves and sleeves of calfskin, buck- 
skin, canvas, and asbestos are used, — the choice of 
material depending upon conditions. When gloves 
with gauntlets are used, the sleeves of the shirt, coat, or 
jumper (whichever is worn) should be pulled down over 
the gauntlets. The sleeves should then be arranged 
with as few folds or creases as possible, and be secured 
about the wrists by means of buttons or clasps or in 
some other suitable manner. (By leaving the gaunt- 
lets outside of the sleeves lodging places for molten 
metal are provided, and serious burns are likely to 
result.) There should be no slits or openings in the 
lower ends of the sleeves (at the wrists) as in ordinary 
shirts, because molten metal would be likely to find 
entrance through them. 

Hand-leathers and gloves of various kinds must be 
worn by men handling scrap, pig iron, and hot castings; 
and rubber gloves are important to afford protection 
against acids employed in pickling processes. Thick, 
clumsy gloves, which interfere with the safe handling of 
tools and implements, should not be used. Care should 
be taken to see that no workman wears ragged gloves, 
or gloves with frayed fingers, which are specially likely 
to be caught by moving parts of machines or on the 
sharp edges of objects being handled. 



LADLES 5 

Aprons and Rubber Boots. In connection with 
pickling processes, rubber boots and rubber aprons are 
often necessary to prevent acid burns and damage to 
clothing. Aprons are of value in other departments of 
foundries also, particularly when flasks and rough, hot 
castings and other objects are being carried about, and 
when it is necessary for grinders to support castings in 
position at the grinding wheels. For work of this kind, 
and for foundrymen engaged in pouring metals, leather 
aprons are recommended. In view of the high cost of 
good leather, however, aprons of other suitable ma- 
terial may be used where the leather is not absolutely 
required. 

Ladles. Several types of ladles are used in foun- 
dries, including reservoir, crane, sulky or buggy, trolley, 
bull, and single-hand ladles. Many burns are caused 
by defects in ladles, and by lack of care in handling and 
transporting them. All ladles should be frequently, 
regularly, and critically examined, and when defects are 
observed the ladles in which they are found should be 
immediately set aside for repairs, or should be discarded 
if the defects are of a serious nature. 

Reservoir ladles and all other ladles operated by 
gearing should receive special attention. The motors 
of motor-operated ladles should be completely inclosed, 
not only to protect the workmen against electric shocks 
and burns, but also to prevent accidents which might be 
caused by metal being spilled upon the motors, re- 
sulting in short circuits or other kinds of trouble. All 
the gears on geared ladles should be completely in- 
closed, the covers or guards being constructed in such a 
way that they may be readily removed for oiling, clean- 
ing, and inspecting the various parts. If guards are 



THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 




Fig. 1. A Crane Ladle. 

(The gears should be completely inclosed, to prevent them from becoming clogged with dirt and 

spattered metal.) 



not provided the gears will soon become clogged with 
dirt and with metal that has hardened or set after hav- 
ing been spilled upon them while in a molten state; 
and clogged gears are likely to be broken or stripped, 
and to cause serious accidents. 



LADLES 7 

Many ladles are equipped with direct-acting spur 
gears. This arrangement permits rapid operation of 
the ladles, but it often imposes severe strains upon the 
operators, making it difficult for them to hold the ladles 
steady while pouring. This often results in spilling the 
metal and causing it to be spattered about when it 
strikes the sand on the tops of the flasks. A tilting ar- 
rangement composed of a train of spur gears, or a com- 
bination of worm gearing and spur or bevel gears, is 
to be preferred. The gears should be so designed and 
arranged that at least two teeth of each wheel will be 
in mesh at all times. Unless this point receives due 
attention a serious accident is likely to occur if the 
teeth become badly worn, or if one of them should 
break, thus permitting the ladle to tilt suddenly when 
pouring. The small pinions and worms of geared 
ladles often deteriorate quite rapidly, and they should 
therefore be inspected frequently and with special care, 
so that they may be renewed before they become a 
source of danger. Every geared ladle should be pro- 
vided with a safety locking device to hold it in an up- 
right position while it is being carried. 

The bail of each crane ladle should be examined 
frequently, and particularly at the point where the 
crane hook engages it, because that is where the wear 
is greatest. The lower parts of these ladles should 
also be watched carefully for evidences of injury 
caused by carelessness on the part of cranemen when 
transporting or depositing them. 

Sulky and buggy ladles are used only to a limited 
extent, but they cause many accidents. In some 
foundries steel plates are laid to serve as runways for 
buggy ladles, and plates are often placed between the 



8 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

rails of narrow-gage industrial railway tracks also. 
Molten metal is sure to splash when spilled on clean, 
smooth plates of this kind, and it also forms into "shot" 
which roll under the feet and cause the men to fall or 
to spill more metal. The danger from splashing might 
be minimized by sprinkling sand on the floor, but the 
sand would hinder the free movement of the wheels, 
and greater effort would be required to move the 
buggies. This would tend to make si)ills more frequent, 
even though in any individual case the sand might 
reduce the likelihood of injury from splashing, after the 
metal had been spilled. Floors of concrete and brick 
have been tried in other foundries, with the result that 




Fig. 2. A Buggy or Sulky Ladle. 

(Observe the inclosure for the gears, and the shield to prevent the molten metal from splashing 
on the operator when pouring and when pusliing the ladle along the track.) 



LADLES 9 

the number of burns from spills has been materially 
reduced. An excellent floor may also be constructed 
of metal plates with checkered surfaces, — the elevations 
on these plates providing a surface that is sufBciently 
smooth for the wheels, w^hile the depressions (which 
are filled with sand) tend to check the splashing. 
Overhead trolley systems are used in some foundries 
for transporting ladles, and in this w^ay the spills and 
splashes that are due to poor floor conditions are 
eliminated. 

It is necessary to maintain a clear path for buggies 
that are being moved about, because metal is likely to 
be spilled from them if even a very small obstruction is 
encountered. Moreover, the buggies or trucks should 
be inspected frequently, paying particular attention to 
the wheels and bearings to make sure that they are in 
good condition so that the buggies will run easily and 
smoothly. Each buggy should be equipped with prong 
guards to hold it rigidly while pouring, and the ladle 
should be properly counterbalanced so that it will auto- 
matically return to an upright position when empty. 

Bull ladles are much safer to handle than ordinary 
single-hand ladles, and should be used whenever pos- 
sible. Several styles of shank-handles are used with 
bull ladles, one of them consisting of a rigid fork handle 
on one side and a rigid single handle on the other side. 
In another style (which is preferable) both handles are 
forked; and in still another form a swivel is provided 
at one end, which permits the ladle to be tilted more 
easily and emptied with less danger of spilling. The 
bowls of bull ladles should be held securely in position 
in their shanks by means of clamps made of round or 
flat iron. The shanks must be amply strong for the 



10 



THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 




Fig. 3, A Bull Ladle in Use. 

(The handle is provided with a swivel, and one mqn tilts the ladle while the other man simply 
sustains a part of the weight.) 

weight to be carried, and the joints should be carefully 
inspected for poor welding, flaws, and other weak- 
nesses. Defective ladle shanks should be removed 
from the pouring floor as soon as discovered, so that 
there will be no possibility of using them again, either 
intentionally or otherwise. Ladle shanks should not 
be left exposed to the weather, because such exposure 
causes them to corrode and become weakened. 

When single-hand ladles are used the shanks should 
be securely attached to the bowls, because otherwise 
the bowls are likely to slip out when pouring, and to 
cause accidents. A sheet-metal guard or shield, 6 or 8 
inches high, should be firmly secured to the top of the 
bowl of every hand ladle on the side next to the shank, 
to protect the workman's hand while carrying the ladle. 



LADLES 



11 




Fig. 4. Pouring from a Hand Ladle. 

(This illustration shows the correct attitude for a man to assume when pouring. Observe also 
the shield on the ladle, to protect the hand from burns caused by spattering metal. The leggings 
are of a good type but, unfortunately, are not clearly shown. On general principles we dis- 
approve of the unbuttoned vest, although the upper part of the body is unlikely to be burned 
so long as the man is engaged solely in work of the kind here shown.) 



12 THK TRAVELERS INSUR.\NCE COMPANY 

When several workmen are carrying ladles from 
the cupola to the molds it is better for them to pass on 
the side on which the bowls are carried. This not only 
tends to avoid confusion and disorder, but it is also 
safer, because there is less danger of burns when two 
bowls are struck together by passing workmen, than 
there is when two shank-handles collide. 

"Horse play" and purposeless activities of other 
kinds should not be permitted among the men who are 
waiting their turns at the cupola, because the work is 
hard and dangerous, and the men must take it serious- 
ly at all times and give their undivided attention to it, 
if burns are to be avoided. The ladles should never be 
completely filled, because if they are, the hot metal will 
surely spill while being carried. "Cutting in" from 
the back of a continuous stream of molten metal at the 
cupola spout causes unnecessary spattering; always cut 
in from the front. 

New employees in foundries, and particularl}- the 
unskilled help, should be carefully instructed with 
regard to the proper method of carrying the ladles and 
the correct position to assume when pouring into the 
molds, and they should be watched and supervised for 
a considerable time after being assigned to such work, 
in order to make sure that they understand how to do 
it properly. The men should stand at a safe distance 
from the molds, so that their feet will not be burned if 
the metal spills or runs out between the cope and the 
drag or nowel. 

Ladles of all kinds, except hand ladles, are likely 
to cause accidents by tilting unexpectedly, unless the 
bowls are properly balanced on their shanks or trun- 
nions, or are arranged to be locked in an upright 



LADLES 



13 




Fig 5. A Trolley Ladle in Position at the Cupola. 



14 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

position. It is specially important to see that the bowls 
are not top-heavy, even when full of metal. On the 
other hand, if the bowls are weighted too heavily at the 
bottom it is difficult to tilt them, and an unnecessary 
strain is imposed upon the operator and also upon the 
gearing and other mechanism; furthermore, it is not 
easy to pour a smooth, continuous stream from a ladle 
which requires considerable exertion to hold it in the 
pouring position. In particular, all ladles that are pro- 
vided with bails for hoisting and transporting by cranes 
should be so constructed that, when full of metal, 
the center of gravity will be well below the bail, unless 
they are arranged with geared devices for tilting. In 
addition, they should be provided with clips or clamps 
to prevent unexpected or accidental overturning. 

When buying new ladles it is important to see that 
the lips are of the correct shape to insure a smooth, 
narrow, undivided stream at pouring, and to prevent 
the molten metal from backing up and running over the 
sides at other points. Both safety and efficiency are 
promoted by the use of ladles with proper lips. 

"Leave-overs" (excess metal left in ladles after the 
molds have been poured) are sometimes poured on the 
foundry floor. In this way puddles of molten metal are 
left, which soon become covered over with a thin coat- 
ing of sand or dust so that they are not readily observed. 
The consequence is that men are often severely burned 
by stepping into or upon these puddles while the metal 
is still hot. Pouring leave-overs on the floor should be 
prohibited, and suitable receptacles should be provided 
at convenient points to receive the excess metal. 

Many serious accidents have been caused by pour- 
ing molten metal into damp ladles, the result usually 



LADLES 



15 




Fig. 6. A Convenient Labor-saving Pouring Device. 

(By installing a monorail system a device of this kind can be used for main-aisle and side-floor 
work. It can be operated by one man, with safety. The ladle can be hoisted and lowered, 
thus making it possible to pour molds at various heights. The metal shield pro- 
tects the eyes of the operator against heat and glare, and also prevents 
burns from spattering metal.) 



16 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

being an explosion, and the scattering of the metal in 
all directions. In every foundry, therefore, special 
care should be taken in drying the ladles. In some 
plants the core ovens or crucible furnaces may be 
utilized for the purpose, while in other cases it may be 
necessary to provide special ovens or heaters. Ladles 
should not be dried in the molding rooms by means 
of wood fires, unless adequate exhaust ventilation is 
provided. 

All ladles that are not in use should be stored in a 
dry place, and preferably on elevated racks, or on sup- 
ports of some other kind that will permit the air to 
circulate freely about the ladles. 

Foundry ladles must be relined from time to time 
(bull and hand ladles are relined each day), and it is 
advisable to have all of this work done by men selected 
for reliability and experience, who are interested in 
making the ladles safe and willing to give them the 
necessary time and attention. 

All of the ladles that are in use should be examined 
carefully every day, preferably by an experienced and 
conscientious man who has been specially selected for 
this work. The bowls should be inspected for cracks 
and thin, weak spots, and the shanks should be 
examined to discover defective welds and erosion. 
Inspectors should also look out for loose rivets and 
bolts, and should see that all necessary guards are 
in good condition and properly secured in place, and 
that all ladles are properly balanced. 

Flasks and Molds. Wooden, steel, and iron 
flasks are used in foundries, but those of iron and 
steel are so much superior that preference should be 
given to them under all possible circumstances. Iron 



FLASKS AND A40LDS 17 

flasks may be cast in the foundry, and the subsequent 
maintenance and depreciation charges are quite small 
as compared with what must be expended upon wooden 
flasks. Moreover, after a wooden flask has been used 
for some time the faces of the cope and the nowel be- 
come burned or broken ofi^, with the result that instead 
of fitting closely together they may be separated by 
a space of an inch or more. Although this space is 
filled with sand, the hot metal is likely to break through 
and run down the sides of the flask. ''Run-outs", 
as leakages of this kind are called, often cause severe 
burns on the feet and legs of the workmen. If iron 
or steel flasks are used, and the cope and nowel faces 
are planed to insure a close fit, there will be little 
likelihood of the occurrence of run-outs. 

Iron and steel flasks, as well as wooden ones, re- 
quire frequent and careful inspection to see that none 
of the lugs, handles, or other parts are broken. If a 
flask is found with a broken or cracked lug or handle 
it should be immediately removed from the shop for 
repairs; otherwise, it might be used again by some 
person unaware of its dangerous condition, and a 
serious accident might result when it was picked up 
by the crane. 

Congestion on the molding floor is noticeable in 
many foundries, particularly in those where the work 
is greatly diversified; and numerous burns are the 
direct result of such a condition. Suflicient space 
should be left between flasks so that the molders and 
their helpers will not be crowded while pouring, and 
so that they will be able to get out of danger quickly 
and easily- in case of a "run-out". There should al- 
ways be a clear space of at least 18 inches between the 



18 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

rows of flasks when pouring "side floor" by hand, and 
for crane work in general; and passages 24 inches or 
wider are much to be preferred. Portable horses 
may sometimes be used to advantage for supporting 
bull ladles when pouring w^ork of certain kinds. 

Flasks, when in storage, should be piled in an 
orderly and systematic manner, and the maximum 
height for stacking them should be such that the 
w^orkmen can handle them easily and conveniently 
while standing with both feet on the floor. Unevenly 
piled flasks sometimes fall over and cause serious in- 
juries; and even though they are piled well enough 
to be stable if undisturbed, they may fall in conse- 
quence of jarring due to the motion of neighboring 
cranes, and sometimes they are pulled over by chains 
dangling from the cranes. 

Workmen often collide one with another, and are 
severely burned or otherwise injured, in consequence 
of their view being obstructed by foundry equipment. 
Obstructions likely to cause accidents of this kind 
should be moved to the sides of the room. It is 
highly essential, also, to keep all the aisles clear of 
flasks, tools, implements, and other obstructions, par- 
ticularly in plants where the illumination is not of 
the best, and where, on account of insufflcient venti- 
lation, large quantities of smoke obscure the vision. 

Orderliness and adequate light and ventilation not 
only increase efticiency, but also materially reduce the 
number of accidents; and any reasonable expense that is 
involved in securing good conditions in these respects 
will pay for itself by lessening the time that is lost in 
consequence of the temporary demoralization to which 
the working force is subject whenever an accident occurs. 



CRUCIBLES 19 

Crucibles. Crucibles are extensively employed 
in founding, especially in connection with non- 
ferrous metals; and the importance of exercising spe- 
cial care in handling them, not only to avoid acci- 
dents but also to insure greater length of service from 
the crucibles themselves, has been greatly under- 
estimated in the past. In our larger plants, however, 
foundrymen are now giving considerable attention to 
the systematic instruction of their furnacemen, melters, 
and helpers, with a view to keeping the number of acci- 
dents as low^ as possible, and obtaining as great a 
number of heats as practicable from each crucible. 

The clay crucibles of former days have been ex- 
tensively supplanted by better ones made largely of 
graphite, which is capable of resisting exceedingly 
high temperatures. In fact, crucibles composed wholly 
of clay have practically gone out of use for the melting 
of steel and brass, because they can often be employed 
for only one or two heats, and they are far more likely 
to break or crack unexpectedly, thereby causing 
workmen to be seriously burned. Moreover, the 
temperatures that occur in metal-working plants at 
the present time are higher than those that prevailed 
when the all-clay crucible was the standard type. 
The crucible that is now in general use consists 
mainly of the substance that is variously known as 
graphite, plumbago, or black lead, and which is a 
practically incombustible form of carbon. This is 
combined with a small amount of a special variety 
of clay as a binding material, and perhaps a little 
fire sand to give the mixture an open grain, so that it 
can better withstand sudden changes of temperature. 
Some makers use, in addition, a certain quantity 



20 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

of material obtained by grinding up old, worn-out 
crucibles; but this practice cannot be recommended. 

The graphite crucible is doubtless the most effi- 
cient yet devised, when cost and all other elements 
are considered, but it is nevertheless somewhat frag- 
ile, in view of the fact that it is expected to withstand 
a heat sufficient to melt the refractory metals, and to 
support, at the same time, very considerable pressures 
due to the weight of its heavy fluid contents. It is 
exceedingly important, therefore, to see that all em- 
ployees fully understand how to handle crucibles in 
order to reduce the danger of breakage to a mini- 
mum; and a great deal can be accomplished in this 
direction, because graphite crucibles, when properly 
made and carefully used, can be kept in a fairly safe 
condition. 

The number of accidents from breakage is greater 
in small plants than in large ones, in proportion to the 
number of crucibles in use. This is due partly to 
the greater care that the crucibles receive in the large 
plants, and partly to the fact that large foundries 
buy supplies of crucibles considerably in excess of their 
immediate requirements, storing the surplus ones and 
allowing them to age or "season". It is an old saying 
that crucibles improve as they grow older, and as 
experience shows that this belief has some actual 
basis in fact, the date of manufacture should be stamped 
upon every crucible, to assist the annealing men in 
selecting the oldest and best seasoned of them, when 
additional ones are required for use. 

Good crucibles are expensive, and every foundry- 
man therefore desires to obtain the maximum serv- 
ice from them. The foundryman who attempts to 



CRUCIBLES 



21 



increase the useful life of his crucibles by careful 
handling, and by the adoption of approved methods of 
every other kind, is at the same time promoting safety 
by preventing accidents from premature breakage. 
Foundrymen, melters, pourers, and helpers, usually 
expect a crucible to run a certain definite number of 
heats, and they are likely to be somewhat careless 




Fig. 7. A Crucible which Broke after being Run 
Only Two Heats. 



when a new crucible is put in service. For this reason 
it is wise to assign a number to each crucible, for re- 
cording the number of heats taken. The record may 
conveniently be kept upon a black-board, opposite 
the appropriate crucible number and in plain view. 
Everybody then knows just how many heats each cru- 
cible has run, and this knowledge often arouses a 
spirit of competition, which tends to make the men 



22 THE TRAVELERS INSURAN'CE COMPANY 

more careful in handling the crucibles, and to increase 
the service that can safely be had from them. (The 
dating and numbering here recommended are now 
being done, quite generally.) 

When crucibles are first received, it is important 
that they be critically examined for cracks and flaws, 
not only by the eye but also by tapping them with a 
light hammer; and all imperfect ones should be re- 
jected. If there is evidence that any of the crucibles 
in a given shipment have become w^et while in transit 
to the foundry, they should be stored for at least 
four or five weeks, before being used, in a place where 
they will dry out thoroughly — even though they may 
be apparently dry at the time they are received. 

When a new supply of crucibles has been care- 
fully inspected and found to be free from defects, the 
entire lot should be stored for a considerable time in 
a warm, dry place, and provision should be made to 
protect them as thoroughly as possible from contact 
with moisture or with moist air. The roof of a con- 
tinuously-operating core oven is an excellent place 
for the storage chamber. 

The proper annealing of crucibles is of far more 
importance than is generally realized. It is said that 
crucibles, when they come from the manufacturer's 
kilns, contain less than one-quarter of one per cent, 
of moisture; but after they have cooled off they 
absorb moisture again from the air. To anneal a 
crucible properly, it should first be slowly heated to 
a temperature somewhat above 250° Fahr., and it 
should be maintained (or "soaked") at this tempera- 
ture for a sufficient time to entirely remove the moist- 
ure. It may then be put into service, if it has been 



CRUCIBLES 23 

thoroughly annealed by the makers. If there is any 
doubt on this point, however, the crucible should next 
be heated for some hours to a dull red heat, after 
which it should be allowed to cool again, very slowly, 
to about 250°. In any case the crucible should still 
be at a temperature of 250° or over, when it goes into 
the furnace, or the drying-out process will not be 
wholly successful. 

Large crucibles, with thick shells, require a higher 
temperature than small-sized ones in the preliminary 
heat- treatment, and a correspondingly longer "soak- 
ing" period, in order to reduce the absorbed moisture 
to the allowable limit. In drying out a No. 200 cru- 
cible, for example, ten hours or more should be allowed 
for bringing it up to a temperature of 250° Fahr., and 
fully ten hours more should be allowed for "soaking", 
• — that is, for reducing the percentage of moisture 
which may have been absorbed. If a crucible that 
has a considerable amount of moisture in its walls 
is quickly subjected to a high temperature, the moisture 
will be changed into steam, and this, because it is 
confined within the walls of the crucible, may expand 
so as to cause a rupture or crack. The same result 
may also follow from the natural contraction of the 
drying crucible, if the moisture is driven out rapidly 
or unevenly. The small "pinholes" and "skelping" 
that may often be seen on crucibles are caused in 
this way. These pinholes and fissures form one of 
the chief sources of trouble against which users of 
crucibles have to guard; for although a crucible hav- 
ing defects of this nature may endure for a consider- 
able number of heats, it is nevertheless likely to fail 
at a critical time (for example, during pouring or 



24 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

while being pulled from the furnace), spilling the 
molten metal and causing severe hand and foot burns. 
After receiving heat-treatment for the removal 
of moisture, crucibles are often placed on a layer of 
damp sand, or on the comparatively cold furnace 
floor, and left there for an indefinite length of time 
before charging. This should not be permitted, be- 




FiG. 8. The Crack in this Crucible Developed 
After Five Heats. 

cause when the temperature of the crucible falls to a 
point materially below 250°, it will again absorb 
moisture. 

Fine cracks (called "alligator cracks") often cover 
the entire surface of a crucible. These may be caused 
in a number of ways. Sometimes they are due to 
heating the crucible with fuel containing too high a 



CRUCIBLES 25 

percentage of sulphur; or, in oil furnaces, they may 
be caused by using too little oil or too much steam. 
It is specially important for the operators to thor- 
oughly understand their work when using an oil 
furnace, because an excess of air or steam, or an 
insufficient supply of oil, may give rise to an oxidizing 
action, whereby a portion of the carbon (or graphite) 
is burned out of the crucible wall, leaving the binding 
clay in a somewhat porous condition; and this action, 
when it occurs, greatly facilitates the formation of 
cracks. 

When crucibles are stored on the top of a furnace, 
the melters or furnacemen should make sure that the 
covers over the furnace openings fit properly. If the 
furnaceman is careless in this respect the moist gases 
that are given off when fresh fuel is placed on the 
fire will escape through the openings to some extent, 
and they are likely to come in contact with the cru- 
cibles, causing alligator cracks to form. 

Cracks and fissures are also likely to form if the 
metal to be melted is not carefully placed in the cruci- 
bles. The men usually work rapidly when introducing 
the ingots, so that the furnaces will not be left open any 
longer than necessary; and the ingots are often thrown 
in with a force sufficient to indent the bottoms of the 
crucibles, or otherwise damage them. An indentation 
in a crucible, whether caused in this way or in any other 
way, is quite likely to develop, shortly, into a crack or 
fracture. The ingots should be introduced carefully 
and loosely, sufficient time being taken to insure that 
this is properly done. When a crucible is first filled it 
is desirable to place as man}^ ingots in it, for the first 
melting, as practicable; but it is exceedingly important 



26 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

to see that they are not wedged or jammed, because 
when they are heated they will expand more than the 
crucible itself, and the walls of the crucible are likely 
to be cracked in consequence. 

When a new crucible is put in service for melting, 
it should be heated quite slowly for a few runs, and this 
is specially important the first time it is used. After 
one or two runs it will become vitrified, and the danger 
from too sudden a heating is then materially reduced. 
It is a good plan to keep on hand a few extra crucibles 
that have been used before, to avoid loss of time in 
case an extra crucible is needed on short notice. 




Fig. 9. A Carrying Pot, with Shank. 

A great deal of harm is done by carelessness in 
handling the tongs and shanks, and the life of a cruci- 
ble may be seriously shortened in this way. When a 
tilting furnace is used, as many as fifty heats can often 
be obtained from a crucible; but if the heating is in 
furnaces from which the crucibles must be removed by 
means of tongs, they can be used for only about fifteen 
heats, on an average. 

A crucible is soft and plastic at a white heat, and 
may easily be squeezed out of shape by the pressure 
exerted upon it when the handles of the tongs are 
forced together. The walls of the crucible gradually 



CRUCIBLES 



27 



become weakened by treatment of this kind, and 
eventually, if the crucible is not discarded, a complete 
rupture will probably occur, with its attendant toll of 
injuries and burns. 

Three styles of tongs are in general use in foundries 
— one-pronged, two-pronged, and spade tongs. The 
different styles are designed for various special purposes 




Fig. 10. Tongs Properly Applied to a Crucible, for 
Removing it from a Stationary Furnace. 

and operations, but they are sometimes improperly 
used interchangeably. It is essential to see that the 
tongs that are used are of the proper shape, and that 
they fit perfectly from the widest part of the crucible 
(usually called the "bilge" or "belly"), down to with- 
in a few inches of the bottom. They should not 



28 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

extend to the extreme bottom, however, because this 
would make it hard to place the crucible in the shank. 
On the other hand, if they do not extend down far 
enough the crucible will be badly squeezed. The 
proper use of the tongs consists in taking hold of the 
crucible below the bilge and lifting it in such a way 
that the least possible pressure is exerted against the 
crucible walls. 

One-pronged tongs should be used only for lifting 
the smaller-sized crucibles, — say up to size No. 40. 
For larger sizes two- pronged tongs should be used. It 
is not uncommon to see large crucibles, ranging from 
No. 200 to No. 300, lifted by one-pronged tongs. This 
practice should be condemned, because when one- 
pronged tongs are used for lifting a crucible, pressure is 
exerted against only a single point of contact, — namely, 
at the bottom, — and the crucible, when hot and soft, 
is likely to be cut or ruptured, if it is large and heavy, 
because the pressure at the point of support is severe. 
Serious burns, from the spilling of the molten metal, 
often result when the lower prong of a two- pronged 
pair of tongs is cut off, on account of a lack of space be- 
tween the crucible and the furnace wall; because the 
crucible is then lifted from above the bilge, and tilted. 
Melters should be cautioned against the practice of 
driving down the ring of the tongs with a skimmer or 
other implement, because this is almost sure to cause 
cracks and fissures in the crucibles. 

Molten metal is often spilled from crucibles in con- 
sequence of using tongs that have become bent or other- 
wise misshapen. It is important to see that the tongs 
fit the crucibles properly, and that they are also in 
good condition in every other way. For restoring 



CRUCIBLES 29 

bent tongs to their proper shape, it is advisable to 
procure a set of cast-iron forms similar in size and 
general shape to the crucibles that are used in the 
plant, but slightly larger from the bilge upward. To 
restore the tongs to their original form it is only neces- 
sary to put them in the furnace, raise them to a red 
heat, clamp them to the proper iron form, and bring 
them back into shape by means of a heavy hammer. 
Tongs may be fitted easily and cheaply in this way, and 
a great saving of time results. If cast-iron forms are 
not provided, the blacksmith cannot be expected to 
restore the tongs to their correct shape with accuracy; 
but if iron crucible-forms of the proper sizes and shapes 
are used, and the tongs are fitted to them as here rec- 
ommended, the likelihood of squeezing and distorting 
the crucibles will be reduced to a minimum. 

Two pairs of tongs, at least, should be provided for 
each size of crucible, so that if one pair becomes badly 
bent or worn, the other pair may be placed in service 
without loss of time. 

Furnacemen should make sure that no clinkers or 
pieces of unburned coal or coke are stuck to the walls 
of the crucibles when about to grasp them with the 
tongs, because if the tongs are applied over a clinker 
the clinker will probably be forced into the crucible 
and a rupture may then occur at any moment. It is 
also important to see that the bottom of the crucible 
(on the outer surface) is free from clinkers or other ad- 
herent substances, so that when the crucible is in the 
furnace its weight will be evenly distributed, and not 
concentrated at a few projecting spots or regions. It 
is best to support the crucible by means of a foundation 
or pedestal, of graphite, fire-brick, or other infusible 



30 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

substance, though the fire-bed may be made to give a 
fairly satisfactory support if it is carefully prepared 
and smoothed. 

When a heat has been poured it is important to 
see that no metal is left in the bottom of the crucible, 
because when a residual mass (or "button") of such 
metal cools, it contracts at a different rate from the 
crucible, and serious strains and cracks are likely to 
result. 

Ramming the fuel bed is bad practice, in general, 
because it is likely to damage the crucibles seriously. 
If ramming appears to be necessary at special times, 
the utmost care should be exercised in doing it. 

(We are indebted to the General Electric Company 
for the photographs that are used in this section.) 

Cupolas. Tapping-out is the most hazardous 
part of cupola work. This is specially true if the 
melter is inexperienced or careless, for it is almost 
entirely within his power to prevent excessive spatter- 
ing of the hot metal if he properly controls the flow 
from the cupola. If dangerous spattering of the 
molten metal, with its attendant burns, is to be elim- 
inated, it is important that the melter be taught the 
correct and only safe method of stopping up the tap 
hole. Under no circumstances should the stopping 
bot be thrust directly into the stream of flowing 
metal in order to "bot-up" the hole. Instead of this, 
it should be brought immediately over the stream, 
and, when near the hole, should be carried down 
obliquely so that it will make a sharp angle with the 
stream, and thus effectively and instantly close up 
the hole without any undue spattering. In drawing 
molten metal from the cupola into buggy or trolley 



CUPOLAS 31 

ladles, it is necessary to stop the flow of metal when a 
ladle has been filled and while another is being moved 
into position. This is done by the melter, who inserts 
the stopping bot into the hole and holds it there 
temporarily. After doing this several times the fire 
clay on the end of the stopping bot becomes burned 
ofT, and consequently the hole may not be closed prop- 
erh\ One or more extra stopping bots, already prepared 
with fire clay, should be conveniently at hand, which 
may be substituted for the burned -off one when 
necessary. The melter and all other workmen engaged 
about the cupola should wear well-designed goggles 
having side shields, because statistics show that a high 
percentage of eye injuries occur about the cupola. 

Accidents occur about cupolas not only when 
drawing off the metal, but also during charging time, 
and when repair work is being done. As a general 
thing workmen engaged in charging a cupola must 
bring the coke and the iron (both scrap and pig) from 
the storage bins or yard, up to the charging platform. 
These workmen should be instructed to pile the iron 
evenly on the barrows, and to exercise great care in 
taking the scrap from the pile, in case the latter is 
in such a condition that it is likely to collapse or slide. 
Many workmen have been severely injured, while 
filling their barrows, by the sudden collapse of piles 
of scrap iron. 

In many foundries elevators are used for convey- 
ing the charges to the charging floors. In every such 
case it is essential that a gong or other signal be 
sounded before the elevator is taken from the charg- 
ing floor by a workman below; and the elevator 
should not be moved, after the signal has been given, 



32 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

until sufficient time has elapsed for any person who 
may be in danger to respond and to move into a place 
of safety. Many serious accidents have been caused 
by elevators suddenly descending while the workmen 
were loading or unloading them. To further guard 
against such accidents there should be a door or gate 
at each entrance to the hoistway, provided with an 
interlocking device so arranged that the elevator cannot 
be started until the door or gate has been closed. 
The unused sides of the car platform should be com- 
pletely inclosed to a height of 6i feet (or to the top 
of the crosshead), and a substantial iron grating 
should be placed on the top of the car, to stop falling 
tools and other objects.* 

The charging opening in a cupola should be fitted 
with a door or gate, which should always be closed 
except when charging is going on, and workmen en- 
gaged in charging should be specially careful to avoid 
tripping or losing their balance when in the vicinity 
of the opening, and especially when throwing heavy 
pieces of scrap or pig metal into the cupola. 

When the interior of a cupola is being relined it is 
recommended that a watchman be stationed near the 
opening, or that a conspicuous warning sign be posted 
beside it, stating that men are working inside. We 
have known of cases where metal thrown into the 
cupola has struck and seriously injured workmen who 
were engaged in making repairs to the shell or lining. 
An effective guard against accidents of this kind con- 
sists in a circular screen of a diameter slightly smaller 
than the inside of the cupola, and made of heavy wire 

* Further information witli regard to tlie care and operation of elevators in general 
is given in a booklet published by the Engineering and Inspection Division of The Travelers 
Insurance Company. Copies of this booklet may be procured by applying to the Home 
Office at Hartford, Connecticut. 



CUPOLAS 33 

netting or of stout expanded metal, substantially 
framed. The screen should be divided in the center, 
and the two sections hinged together. In using this 
device it is suspended above the point where the men 
are at work, from a piece of scantling laid diametrically 
across the cupola so that it rests upon the walls where 
they are offset for the single brick lining, or upon the 
ledge formed by the charging doors, — the screen being 
supported by chains at several points around its cir- 
cumference, and having its hinges on the under sides. 
When arranged in this way it tends to remain open 
and flat, although it can easily be folded by raising it 
at the middle. A screen of this kind will intercept 
falling pieces of slag and brick, and other objects, 
and wull thus protect the w^orkmen below. 

When furnaces are to be entirely relined, only 
trustworthy and experienced men should be allowed to 
perform the work. Moreover, the fire-bricks that are 
used should be of the best quality obtainable, in order 
to insure long life of the cupola. Between the bricks 
and the shell a space of about f of an inch should be 
left, which should be filled with dry sand to act as a 
cushion, so that severe stresses will not be thrown 
on the shell when the bricks expand. The rivets 
and the shells of all cupolas should be inspected period- 
ically, to see if any of the rivets have sheared off or 
worked loose, or if the shell has become w^eakened in 
any way. After making repairs of any kind, care 
should be taken to see that the cupola is thoroughly 
dried out, and that all tools, and all materials used 
for scaffolding or other purposes, are removed. 

Explosions occur in cupolas from time to time, and 
if the shell of a cupola is weak, a serious catastrophe 



34 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

is likely to result. Carbon monoxide, when combined 
with air in certain proportions, forms a highly inflam- 
mable and explosive mixture, and the explosions are 
mainly due to this gas, which collects in the wind box 
and blast pipe during interruptions in operation. In 
an incredibly short time enough carbon monoxide gas 
may collect in this way to cause a violent explosion 
when the blast is turned on again. If the iron comes 
too fast a temporary shut-down may be unavoidable; 
but interruptions from other causes, — such, for example, 
as the slipping of the blower belt, — should be prevented, 
so far as possible, by frequent inspections of the equip- 
ment and by making all necessary adjustments and 
repairs when the cupola is not in operation. 

A gate or damper should be placed in the blast 
pipe, close to the cupola, to prevent the explosive gas 
from entering the pipe. This gate should be closed 
immediately, whenever the blast is shut off, and it 
should be opened cautiously and slowly when starting 
up again. At the time that the blower is shut down 
one of the tuyeres should be opened also, to maintain 
a slight draft of air. 

Explosion doors provide another means for pre- 
venting damage from gas explosions. Some authorities 
recommend that these doors be placed in front of the 
tuyeres, so that when the blast is turned off the doors 
may be opened to admit the outside air. When this 
arrangement is adopted the doors should not be closed 
until the blast has entered the wind box, so that any 
gas remaining therein may escape through the doors. 

With a positive-pressure blower, which is probably 
the best type for cupola work, a safety-valve should be 
provided for the protection of the blast pipe or blower. 



TRAVELING CRANES 35 

This will prevent the bursting of the blast pipe in case 
the blast gate is closed suddenly, or if the cupola be- 
comes clogged with slag in such a manner as to ob- 
struct the passage of the air to a dangerous extent. The 
weights on the safety-valve should be sufficient to pre- 
vent blowing-off unless the obstruction is quite serious, 
because a constant blast-volume is required in modern 
cupola operation, and if the volume is decreased an un- 
desirable lowering of the temperature occurs. 

Charging and lighting-up should be done carefully 
and by experienced workmen, and the charges should be 
laid as nearly level as possible. When the charging has 
been completed, and after lighting-up, sufficient time 
should be allowed for the cupola to become thoroughly 
warmed up before starting the blower. 

Traveling Cranes. Cranes of various types are 
used in the foundry, but most of the heavy work is 
done by electrically-operated traveling cranes. The 
suggestions that follow therefore relate mainly to that 
type, although many of them are applicable to all 
cranes, and to hoisting devices of other kinds. 

A substantial stairway or ladder should be in- 
stalled at one end of the crane runway, to provide access 
to the crane cab or cage; and when two cranas are 
operated on the same runway, stairways or ladders 
should be installed at both ends of the runway. Crane- 
men should always use this means of entering and 
leaving the cages. Every crane cab should be inclosed 
to a height of at least 42 inches on all sides, except where 
entrance is actually effected. The inclosure should pref- 
erably be of sheet metal or expanded metal, or of 
heavy, woven-wire mesh. If railings are used there 
should be an intermediate rail midway between the top 



36 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

rail and the floor of the cab, and a six-inch toe-board 
should also be installed. A stairway or a ladder should 
always be provided for passing from the cab to the top 
of the crane bridge. This should be substantially built, 
and properly protected so that the crane operator or re- 
pairman will be in no danger of falling when he uses it. 

A foot-walk should be constructed along the bridge 
of the crane, or on both sides where the width of the 
bridge demands. This will give easy and safe access to 
the trolley in any position, and to any part of the 
bridge. The construction should be substantial, and 
the width must be sufficient to provide ample room for 
passage. Double railguards 42 inches high should be 
erected along each foot-walk, and six-inch toe-boards 
should also be provided. 

Whenever possible, a substantial walk should be 
installed beside the crane runway, and this should 
be protected by strong railings and toe-boards along its 
entire length. All traveling cranes should be equipped 
with spring bumpers or oil bumpers, and suitable stops 
should be installed at each end of each rail of the 
runway. 

All gears on the trolley and other parts of the crane 
should be completely incased, and no one should be 
allowed on top of the crane while it is in motion. A 
stout sheet-metal pan, or a substantial floor, should be 
provided under the trolley, to catch any parts that may 
work loose, and to prevent them from falling upon 
employees below. This pan or floor should be solid 
except for the cable openings. Guards, fenders, or 
brushes should be attached in front of the bridge and 
trolley wheels, to remove any obstructions that may 
be upon the tracks, and to prevent injury to persons 



TRAVELING CRANES 



37 



who may be working in such positions that their hands 
or feet might be crushed by the wheels. 

All electrical wiring should be installed in conduits; 
and it is particularly important that hoist-limit stops 
be provided, in all cases, both for the main and for the 
auxiliary hoists. In the best crane practice the hoist- 

Courtesy of The Alliance Machine Company. 




Fig. 11. Safeguards on a Large Ladle Crane. 

(This crane i'; larger than is used in the average foundry but it has some safety features that 

should be universally adopted. At A is the landing platform leading to the foot-walk on 

the crane bridge; B is a stairway which extends from the safety platform. C, just 

outside the operator's cage, to the landing platform. The railing and 

toe-board on the crane bridge and on the trolley are also essential 

for safety.) 

limit stops employ dynamic braking to check over- 
travel and to assist in lowering loads. To prevent the 
crane from being operated by unauthorized persons, or 
while repairs are being made, there should be a safety 
switch in the main line, mounted above the cab where 
it can be conveniently reached from the foot-walk. 
This switch should be fitted with a lock so that it can 



38 



THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



be secured in the open position, and the key should be 
only in the possession of the crane operator or the head 
repairman. 

Woodwork should not be used about a crane, be- 
cause it is likely to become oil-soaked, and it is then 
exceedingly combustible. If it should take fire and the 
craneman, in order to make his escape, should run the 
crane to a stairway, the time required for this purpose 
might increase his danger quite materially, and the 



Cdiulrsyoflln- Sh. l^.ir.l I'.!,:, In: C 



JI,.i I C.ni.'-.ii 









Fig. 12. Some Safety Features of a Traveling Crane. 

(This illustration shows a part of a crane on the erecting floor of the manufacturer. There are no 
exposed revolving parts throughout the entire length of the crane bridge. Some of the 
safety features are as follows: A — inclosed gearing; B — inclosed drive-shaft coup- 
ling; C — pipe inclosure for drive shaft; D — device for sanding rails when 
crane is used out-of-doors. See also Fig. 13.) 



motion of the crane would also tend to increase the fire. 
If, on the other hand, he tries to leave the crane in 
any other w^ay than by the regular stairway, he will 
be exposed to hazards of other kinds, and these will be 
accentuated by his haste. 

Keep all tools, oil-cans, and waste in a closed metal 
box securely fastened to the crane or to the runway at 
some convenient point. 

Careful, watchful, intelligent, and trustworthy 
crane operators, floormen, and repairmen, can do a 
great deal toward preventing accidents, and only such 
men should be employed about cranes. The following 



TRAVELING CRANES 



39 



suggestions relate to the work of these men, and if 
faithfully followed will be the means of promoting 
safety in a marked degree. 

During the ordinary operation of an electric crane 
the craneman should never leave his cage without 

Courtesy of the Shepard Electric Crane bf Hoist Company. 







Fig. 13. Some Safety Features of a Traveling Crane. 

(This is a nearer view of some of the safeguards shown in Fig. 12. A is the track Sander which 

is operated by a rotie or cable attached to the lever and extended to the craneman's cage; 

B shows more clearly the drive-shaft coupling. The shaft inclosure also appears 

more plainly.) 

making sure that all the controllers are in the off 
position, and that the main switch is open. Before he 
leaves the crane the safety switch should also be locked 
open. If the electric current should be shut off at any 
time, the same precautions should be observed; and 
before closing the main switch, when about to resume 
work after an interruption due to any cause whatso- 
ever, the craneman should again make certain that all 
the controllers are in the off position. 



40 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

When about to lift a load, the motor should be run 
at low speed until the slack in the chain or cable has 
been taken up, after which the controller handle may 
be advanced slowly from point to point to increase the 
speed. Before a motor is reversed it should be brought 
to a full stop, except when an accident can be averted 
only by disregarding this advice. 

When handling a heavy load the craneman should 
hoist it a few inches above the floor, and then, before 
proceeding further, he should assure himself that it is 
properly balanced and that the slings are secure, and 
should also test the brakes to make sure that they will 
hold the load safely. If there is any doubt whatsoever 
about the safety of the operation, the load should be 
lowered and the slings or brakes adjusted, or other 
necessary measures taken to avoid danger. It is also 
desirable, at the beginning of each shift, to test the 
foot brakes and limit switches thoroughly. 

It is extremely important, at all times, and par- 
ticularly when handling molten metal, to "spot" the 
trolley directly above the load to be hoisted. Failure 
to do this will cause the load to swing sidewise as 
soon as it is clear of the floor, and usually the metal 
will be spilled, or men or objects near by may be 
struck by the load. 

Loads should be raised high enough to give proper 
clearance above men and objects on the floor, but they 
should not be carried for any considerable distance at an 
unnecessary elevation. So far as possible, the craneman 
should avoid transporting loads directly over workmen. 
Special care should be exercised to keep loads under 
control when lowering them, and the speed should 
always be restricted to a reasonable and safe limit. 



TRAVEL I N(; CRANES 41 

Some definite person must be held responsible 
for the selection of the chains and slings that are 
used for hoisting, and for making suitable hitches 
about the loads. If the foundry is large enough to 
employ a special floorman, these matters may well be 
left to him, because he is necessarily familiar with the 
constantly-changing conditions, and he should there- 
fore be able to select the proper sling quickly and 
intelligently. Moreover, experience will have taught 
him the best method for attaching the sling, or for 
hooking on to the load. If no special floorman is 
employed, this part of the work should be supervised 
by a specially assigned foreman, or by a skilled hooker- 
on. When applying the hook to the load, and when 
holding the hook in place while the slack is being 
taken up, the hooker-on should be careful to avoid 
having his hands caught and crushed between the 
sling and the load. Hooks with safety handles may 
be had, and these add greatly to the safety of the 
men when hooking up. If safety handles are not 
provided, pieces of wood notched at the end may be 
used with advantage for holding the hooks in place, — 
the notch being pressed against the hook to prevent 
it from moving before the tension comes on it. 

When the hooks or slings are in place and the 
slack has been taken up, the workmen should imme- 
diately move back several feet from the load. When 
a load is being deposited, all persons should keep at a 
safe distance while the slings are being withdrawn from 
under it, because the slings may snap out suddenly, 
or may catch on the load and tip it over. When 
slackening-off the hoisting cables the hooker-on should 
avoid pulling down on the inrunning side of the block, 



42 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

because his fingers may be caught between the sheave 
and the cable and be cut off or badly crushed. It is 
far safer to grasp the outrunning side, and pull up and 
away from the sheave. Greater safety in this work 
is insured by inclosing the block to which the hook is 
secured. Blocks guarded in this manner are available 
and should be generally adopted. 

The crane operator should never allow chains, 
slings, cables, or hooks to drag along the floor, and 
he should never start the crane carriage or trolley 
until all such appendages are entirely clear. Even in 
the short distance that the crane might travel before 
they leave the floor, the slings or hooks might become 
caught on some obstruction and cause an accident. 

No one should be permitted to ride on a load or 
on the crane hook; and if the craneman observes a 
violation of this rule he should stop the crane and 
refuse to move it until the person who is riding is in 
a safe place on the floor. 

In a busy foundry the craneman must be specially 
alert, and his attention must be given, unremittingly, 
to following the various operations on the floor, tak- 
ing the signals from the floorman, and controlling the 
movements of the crane. 

Before an inexperienced man is permitted to take 
charge of a crane, he should be thoroughly trained in 
the work by a careful, well-qualified craneman, who 
should see that he becomes familiar with the operat- 
ing mechanism, and skilled in the manipulation of the 
various levers and controls. 

A signal gong, operated by hand or foot, or 
electrically, should be part of the equipment of every 
crane, and should be rung when the crane is started. 



TRAVELING CRANES 43 

and as frequently thereafter as may be necessary. Oc- 
casionally the gong is actuated by the mechanism that 
moves the crane, so that the warning signal is sounded 
automatically and continuously so long as the crane is 
moving. The objection to this method is that the 
sound of the gong is likely to become so familiar 
that its value as a warning of danger will be lost and 
and the men will give little heed to it. Furthermore, 
the gong should always be treated as an extra safeguard, 
and no other safety precaution should be omitted or al- 
lowed to fall into disuse merely because the gong is 
used, nor should vigilance and caution be relaxed in 
any respect whatever. 

Some person should be specially designated to 
transmit to the craneman the signals for moving the 
loads, and the craneman should disregard signals given 
by other men. The signalman should stand in plain 
view^ of the craneman and should take care to give all 
his signals clearly. A definite and unmistakable code 
of signals, consisting of motions of the hands and 
arms, should be arranged. Signals given orally are 
unsatisfactory and unsafe, not only because it is 
often dift^icult to distinguish them with certainty un- 
less the foundry is quiet, but also because the sound 
of loud voices will always distract the attention of 
other men from their work. When a load is being 
transported some person designated for this purpose 
should always walk in front of it to warn workmen 
who are in danger of being struck, and he should 
also see that the load is carried high enough to clear 
all obstacles in its path, because the craneman, on 
account of his location, sometimes finds it hard to 
judge the height of the load correctly. 



44 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

A crane that is to be repaired should be moved to 
one end of the runway or to some other point where it 
will cause the least interference with the movements of 
other cranes. The controllers and the main and emer- 
gency switches should be placed in the off position be- 
fore starting any repair work on cranes, and the safety 
switches should be locked, or the fuses removed, to 
prevent any movement of the crane, and to avoid 
accidental short circuits that might result in injury to 
the repairmen. 

Suitable warning signs should be placed on cranes 
that are undergoing repairs, and buffers or rail stops 
should be clamped to the crane rails a few yards in 
front of the disabled crane when others are operated on 
the same runway. If practicable, a suitable floor area 
directly underneath the disabled crane should be roped 
ofT or inclosed in some other way, to prevent accidents 
that might be caused by tools or other objects falling 
from the crane. Similar precautions should be taken 
when men are at work on the runways, and red flags 
or other warning devices should be placed at both ends 
of the section undergoing repairs. 

Chains and Hooks. Chains and hooks should be 
carefully inspected at regular intervals, and they should 
also be annealed from time to time by competent 
workmen who thoroughly understand the art of an- 
nealing, and who know how to secure the results that 
are desired. Particular care should be taken with 
hooks in this respect, because a hook, when properly 
annealed, should gradually yield or straighten if sub- 
jected to a serious overload, and thus give warning of 
danger; whereas if it is not properly annealed, and 
therefore hard, it is likely to snap off suddenly, without 



WIRE- ROPE SLINGS 45 

warning. Chains and hooks should be inspected with 
care immediately after annealing, because they are 
then cleaner than at other times, and hence any existing 
defects or flaws in them may be detected with greater 
certainty. All chains and hooks should be numbered, 
and a careful record should be kept of the inspections 
and annealings. Hoisting chains are particularly liable 
to failure through fatigue or over-strain, on account 
of the severe treatment to which they are frequently 
subjected; and they should therefore be examined 
minutely, and link by link, to detect insecure welds 
and slight cracks or other defects. Chain slings 
should never be crossed or twisted when placed around 
loads, and every chain that is to be used as a sling 
should be made of the highest quality of wrought 
iron. All chains should be oiled frequently, to pre- 
vent rusting. 

Forged hooks, or laminated hooks made of steel 
plates securely riveted together, should be used in 
preference to those made of cast steel. Hooks are 
sometimes subjected to severe abuse by workmen 
who try to force them into position by striking them 
with heavy iron bars or other implements. This is a 
dangerous practice, and should be strictly prohibited. 

Wire-Rope Slings. Well-made wire-rope slings 
give better service than chain slings, because they are 
stronger, weight for weight, and also because deterio- 
ration is usually indicated by broken strands that are 
readily discoverable by an experienced and qualified 
inspector. Wire-rope slings are pliable, and may be 
adapted to almost every use. They should be kept 
in good condition, and to prevent rusting and unnec- 
essary wear from friction they should be treated with 



46 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

oil or with a good cable lubricant prepared specially 
for the purpose. Wire-rope for slings used in hand- 
ling molten metal or hot castings should have a soft 
iron-wire core, because a hemp core is quite likely to 
be destroyed by the heat. 

Slings in General. A sling should never be allow- 
ed to rest directly against the sharp corners of a heavy 
flask, casting, or other similar object, but should be 
protected by wooden corner-pieces, or by pads of burlap 
or other soft material. 

Every sling, whether composed of a chain or a 
rope, should be long enough not only to surround the 
load it has to support, but also to leave a considerable 
space between the sling and the upper surface of the 
load. The oblique parts of the sling, which lie above 
the load and join it to the hook (or to the point where 
the suspension first becomes vertical) should never be 
so flat as to make an angle of less than 45 degrees 
with the ground. This precaution is highly import- 
ant, but it is often overlooked or neglected, because 
the men do not realize that the stress on the ends of 
a sling is greater, the flatter (or more nearly horizon- 
tal) they lie. When the ends are inclined at an angle 
of 45 degrees, the stress upon each of them is about 
41 per cent, greater than it would be if the ends were 
vertical; and if the sling is so short that it barely 
goes around the load and has but little slack, the 
stress upon it may be very great indeed. 

We strongly advise that all slings, when not in 
actual use, be kept under lock and key and placed 
in charge of some responsible person who knows their 
condition and is competent to select safe and appro- 
priate slings for every occasion. They may be stored 



TUMBLING BARRELS 47 

in the tool room or supply room, for example, and be 
in charge of a qualified foreman. 

Hoisting Apparatus in General. Hoisting appa- 
ratus of every kind should be inspected frequently and 
thoroughly, and all parts that are defective in any way 
should be promptly repaired or replaced. The man 
charged with the operation of the apparatus should 
not attempt to make repairs or adjustments, however, 
unless the foundry is a small one, where this constitutes 
a part of his recognized duty. Under all other circum- 
stances he should immediately report to the foreman 
or repairman, in order that the job may receive atten- 
tion in the proper way. If the defect is serious enough 
to constitute a possible source of danger, the apparatus 
should not be operated until the necessary repairs or 
adjustments have been made. 

Tumbling Barrels. Tumbling barrels (or "rat- 
tlers") for cleaning rough castings are of two general 
types, respectively known as wet and dry. There are 
numerous mechanical hazards in connection with both 
types, and with dry tumbling barrels considerable 
danger to health may be caused by the dust created by 
them unless suitable preventive measures are adopted. 

There are two methods that are commonly em- 
ployed for removing the dust from dry tumbling 
barrels. One of these consists in attaching an exhaust 
system directly to the machine, and the other consists 
in inclosing the barrel in a dust-proof compartment 
from which the dust may be exhausted. The first 
method, as a rule, is practicable only in connection with 
tumbling barrels that are of special design, and are 
provided with the necessary attachments for connect- 
ing with exhaust fans. In nearly all other cases 



48 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

dust-proof inclosures must be built, and it is practicable 
to secure satisfactory results in this way when the sys- 
tem is properly arranged. The compartments should be 
made as tight as possible, and should be constructed of 
sheet metal or w^ell-seasoned lumber. The doors may 
be arranged to fold, or to slide upward or sidewise; or 
they may be hinged to open in any way that is most con- 
venient. In some cases rolling steel shutters are used. 
Doors that rise vertically should be suitably counter- 
weighted so that they will not drop upon the workmen, 
and the counterweights should be inclosed. In addi- 
tion to the counterweights we recommend the use of 
catches or fastenings for holding up the doors. 

When tumbling barrels (either wet or dry) are not 
located in compartments, substantial double railings, 
at least 42 inches high, should be placed about them, 
with a clearance of not less than 15 inches nor more than 
20 inches. (When railings are placed more than 20 
inches away, workmen are likely to crawl inside of 
them to do any necessary work, and they are then in 
greater danger than they would be in if no railings were 
present; whereas if railings are omitted altogether, the 
workmen are likely to be struck or to have their cloth- 
ing caught by small objects that may work through 
perforated or loosely-fitting covers, or by the projecting 
cover-fastenings.) The railings should be provided 
with gates so arranged that opening the gates will 
automatically throw the driving belts or clutches into 
the off position, and will prevent the machines from 
being started until the gates are closed. Driving belts 
should be guarded to a height of at least 6 feet above the 
floor, and all exposed gears should be completely in- 
closed. Chain hoists should be provided for lifting 



SAND MIXERS AND SIFTERS 49 

heavy covers, and suitable brakes or locking devices 
should be installed to prevent any movement of the 
machines while they are being loaded or unloaded. Se- 
curing the barrels in position by means of bars or props 
is a mere makeshift method, and is manifestly unsafe. 

Sand Mixers and Sifters. Sand mixers are of two 
general types, one of which simply mixes the materials, 
while the other not only mixes but also grinds them. 
The mixer consists of a horizontal semi-cylindrical 
vessel in which the sand is placed and the mixing is 
done by revolving blades. The top of the cylinder 
should be covered by a substantial grating composed 
of |-inch round stock suitably reinforced to insure 
rigidity, and provided with free-swinging discharging 
doors. All gears should be inclosed by substantial 
guards, and the driving belt should be protected to a 
height of at least 6 feet above the floor. A well-de- 
signed belt-shifter should be provided, and should be 
so arranged that it may be locked to prevent creeping 
of the belt. 

The combination mixer and grinder is similar to 
the revolving dry-pan used in the manufacture of 
bricks, and it may be driven either from underneath or 
from overhead. In either case the driving gears and 
all other exposed gears should be suitably inclosed, and 
the driving belt should be protected and be fitted with 
a belt-shifter, as described above in connection with 
the sand mixer. The revolving pan should be com- 
pletely surrounded by a substantial guard of heavy, 
reinforced wire netting extending to a height well above 
the hubs of the grinding wheels. An opening should be 
left in one side of the guard, and at this point a sheet- 
metal feeding hopper should be securely riveted on. 



so THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

A drag or other suitable mechanical device should be 
provided to force the sand out through the discharging 
door, and the use of hand shovels for removing the sand 
from the pan while it is in motion should be prohibited. 

Pipe or angle-iron railings 42 inches high should be 
installed at the sides of rotating sand sifters, at a dis- 
tance of at least 15 inches, and not more than 20 inches, 
from them. Belt-shifters should be provided, and the 
belts should be guarded to a height of at least 6 feet 
above the floor. 

When sand mixers and sifters are driven by electric 
motors every precaution should be taken to prevent 
electric shocks and burns. See that all live wires and 
other parts are thoroughly insulated, and guard all 
dangerous rotating parts. Inclosed switches should be 
used, and they should be located in convenient and 
easily accessible positions; fuses of the inclosed type 
should also be used. 

Automatic Molding Machines. The gears on 
both sides of these machines should be entirely in- 
closed by substantial guards of sheet metal, expanded 
metal, or close-mesh woven wire. The connecting 
rods should be similarly guarded, the inclosures in the 
latter case to extend as high as possible without inter- 
fering with the adjustment. Whether the machines 
are driven by belts or by electric motors, such pre- 
cautions should be taken with regard to belt-shifters, 
belt-guards, and electrical safeguards as have been re- 
commended above in connection with sand mixers. 

Chipping Department. Many serious eye injuries 
occur in the chipping department, and practically all 
of these may be prevented by requiring the general 
use of suitably-designed eye-protectors or goggles. 



CHIPPING DEPARTMENT 



51 




Fig. 14. Molding Machine Operated by Compressed Air. 



Eye-protectors for cupola men and others enp^aged in 
handling molten metal have been described in a pre- 
vious paragraph, and those to be used by chippers 
should be similar. Cheap, flimsy eye-protectors should 
not be used. It is economy to buy substantial goggles 
at a higher price, not only because they afford better 
protection, but also because they are more durable. 



52 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

In addition to the eye-protectors, shields of 
canvas or other suitable material, mounted on sub- 
stantial frames, should be provided, wherever needed, 
to protect near-by workmen from flying chips. 

Chippers should not be permitted to work with 
battered or otherwise defective tools. Broken ham- 
mers and sledges should be discarded, and cold-chisels 
and other implements should be dressed when they 
become burred or mushroomed. 

Grinding Wheels. Emery wheels and wheels of 
other abrasive materials are used in grinding castings, 
and these sometimes burst and cause serious injuries 
to the operators. All grinding wheels should be fitted 
with safety collars or flanges, and, where practicable, 
should be inclosed by substantial metal hoods con- 
nected to exhaust fans for removing the dust. Sta- 
tionary grinding machines should be mounted on solid 
foundations to prevent vibration, and their bearings 
should be ample in size and be kept well lubricated 
and properly adjusted. It is important that grinders 
wear goggles, to protect their eyes from flying dust 
and sparks. 

Further details with regard to the design, care, 
and operation of grinding wheels will be found in a 
booklet, entitled ''Grinding Wheels', published by 
the Engineering and Inspection Division of The 
Travelers Insurance Company. 

Compressed Air. Compressed air is commonly 
used in foundries for operating air hoists, blow guns, 
spraying devices, pneumatic hammers and chisels, 
sand-blasts, molding machines, and sand-blast tumb- 
ling barrels. Serious accidents are often the result 
of the improper use of compressed air, and workmen 



SAND-BLASTING 53 

should never be allowed to play pranks with it, but 
should use it only for the purposes for which it is 
provided. In particular, a sand-blast should never 
be turned upon a person, because it might easily 
destroy his eyesight or cause other serious injuries. 

The introduction of compressed air into the hu- 
man body causes great distention of the intestines, 
accompanied by agonizing pain; and the victim usually 
dies after a short period of intense suffering. Every 
man about the foundry should therefore make it his 
special business to see that no attempt is made to use 
the air lines for perpetrating so-called "practical jokes". 

Sand-blasting. Sand-blasting may be done in 
the open air if eye-protectors and respirators are worn 
and other suitable precautions are taken, but it is far 
better to provide a dust-proof chamber for this work. 
The operator of the sand-blast should then wear an 
appropriate helmet, to effectively protect his lungs and 
eyes from the dust. The form of apparatus used 
should be adapted to the work to be done, and to the 
conditions that must be met. Considered from the 
point of view of the dust hazard alone, the ideal arran- 
gement appears to consist in a helmet well ventilated 
by means of a hose supplying an adequate flow of dust- 
free air. The hose may be run from the compressed-air 
tank to the upper part of the helmet, and it should be 
provided with a regulating valve located where it may 
be easily controlled b}^ the man who is to be sup- 
plied. The air current should be so adjusted that it 
will not only afford sufficient oxygen to serve for res- 
piration, but also prevent dust from rising into the 
helmet through openings in the lower part of it. In 
practice, however, it is frequently found that the plan 



54 



THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 




Fig. 15. A Special Chamber for Sand-blasting. 

(Strong air suction, through the exhaust hoods shown in the upper part of the picture, wiJ 

remove a large quantity of th'^ dust that is created, but it would be better if the ducts 

were placed in the floor, with gratings over them, or in the side walls. The helmet 

which the operator is wearing is of a type commonly used in work of this kind, ."^s 

explained in the text, no entirely satisfactory helmet has yet been devised.) 



SAND-BLASTING 



Cotirtes 



ilic WcsUrn Electric Nca 




Fig. 16. Cabinets for Sand-blasting Small Castings. 

(The castings are placed in the cabinets and are held and turned about bv the operators, who 

watch the progress of the work through glass panels. The dust is carried off through 

the exhaust ducts.) 

here outlined is highly objectionable to the men, and 
in fact they often refuse to wear apparatus of this 
type, claiming that the cool air passing down the neck 
soon causes them to catch cold. Baffles and various 
other distributing devices to regulate the flow of the 
air within the helmet have been tried, but no ideal 
and wholly satisfactory solution of the difficulty has 
yet been worked out, so far as we are aware. In the 



56 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

Opinion of certain foundry experts, an ordinary helmet 
with a respirator attached, or used in conjunction with 
a separate respirator, constitutes the best device for 
the protection of the sand-blaster, when all phases of 
the problem are considered. 

Each compartment used for sand-blasting should 
be provided with an exhaust system capable of remov- 
ing the dust in a satisfactory manner. 

Illumination. The average foundry is poorly 
lighted, and many accidents may be attributed directly 
to this condition. There are many problems to be 
considered in providing proper and adequate light 
for foundries, and as the conditions that have to be 
met vary a great deal, it is impossible to make any 
general recommendations that will be applicable in 
all cases. 

The floors, walls, supporting columns, ceilings, 
and materials in foundries are usually covered with 
grime and dust which absorb from 95 to 98 per cent, 
of the light that strikes them, and which give them 
all the same general tone or color. With no contrast- 
ing background it becomes exceedingly difficult, at 
times, to distinguish objects lying upon the floor, and 
care should therefore be taken to see that the floor is 
kept free from tools, materials, and obstacles of every 
other kind, over which the workmen might stumble. 
Moreo\er, if the ventilating system is inadequate to 
keep the air reasonably clear, the dust, smoke, and gases 
will not only reduce the intensity of the illumination 
and thereby invite accidents, but may also affect the 
health of the working force. 

During certain stages of the work, — notably at 
pouring time, — the men are exposed to a dazzling, 



ILLUMINATION • 57 

blinding radiation from the white-hot, molten metal. 
Very often, too, lighting units of intense intrinsic 
brilliance and high candle-power are placed where 
they shine directly into the eyes of the men. Condi- 
tions such as these impair the vision of the worker, 
thereby reducing his efficiency as a producer, and 
multiplying the opportunities for accidents. 

One of the best artificial lighting sources for 
foundry work is the Mazda C lamp (500 to 1,000 watt 
sizes). To determine the proper location of the lamps, 
and their spacing, suspension heights, and other fea- 
tures (such as the types of reflectors that should be 
used) it is necessary to understand, as fully as pos- 
sible, the exact conditions that must be met. Where 
incandescent lighting units are to be used, wall brack- 
ets, fitted with angle reflectors, provide the best means 
of securing satisfactory illumination at the floor level. 
Good results may be obtained by installing the brack- 
ets on the supporting columns, under the crane run- 
way and below the smoky zone. 

Although we have spoken only of artificial light 
for foundries, it is important to admit the greatest 
possible amount of natural light. As a usual thing, 
skylights are of little value on account of the clouds 
of smoke that often fill the upper part of the building, 
and therefore practically all the natural light that 
can be really serviceable must pass through windows 
in the side walls. For the same reason the effective 
window area must be considered as only that below 
a height of approximately twelve feet. It is essen- 
tial that the windows occupy as much of the wall 
space as possible, and, where the width of the room 
is great, prism glass should be used. Prism glass, 



58 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

Courtesy of the American Blower Company, 




Fig. 17. Good Daylight Conditions in a Foundry. 

(Observe also the ventilating duct, near the roof, and the downwardly-projecting Y-shaped 
nozzles connected to it through which the smoke and dust are drawn out of the building.) 



when properly set, will reflect the light into the room 
in a nearly horizontal direction. Satisfactory natural 
illumination can hardly be had without keeping the 
windows clean; and we also strongly advise whitewash- 
ing the walls, ceilings, and supporting columns, apply- 
ing fresh coats whenever they are needed. 

The Foundry Yard. The fact that orderliness 
and system promote safety is probably nowhere bet- 
ter exemplified than in a large foundry yard. The 
maintenance and cost of a foundry yard is small as 
compared with that of the foundry itself, and it is 
good economy, therefore, to use the yard as much 
as practicable for the storing of scrap, sand, flasks, 



THE FOUNDRY YARD 59 

finished product, raw materials, and miscellaneous 
supplies; but the maximum efficiency and economy 
cannot be realized unless the yard is kept in a neat 
and orderly condition. If a yard is just large enough 
to meet the needs of a foundry, and is not used to its 
full capacity, it usually follows that the foundry floor- 
space is littered with material that could be stored in 
the yard more advantageously; and the crowding of 
the foundry floor increases the number of accidents, 
many of which might be eliminated if the yard were 
utilized to better advantage. This is specially true 
of a foundry where every available foot of floor space 
is required for production. In this class belongs the 
"jobbing foundry," in which work of a miscellan- 
eous nature is done, as distinguished from the "repe- 
tition foundry," in which the work consists mainly in 
the continuous reproduction of certain standard stock 
patterns. 

The jobbing foundry owes its existence to the 
fact that many manufacturers who use castings have 
no room for a foundry, or have too limited a need for 
castings to warrant the expense of maintaining a 
foundry of their own. A foundryman who depends 
largely or wholly upon job contracts to keep his plant 
in operation usually has to turn out an exceedingly 
varied assortment of castings, and speed is often an 
essential factor in the contract. This means that 
as soon as one job is finished, the flasks and patterns 
must be removed and a different set substituted. If 
the yard is not well kept there is little likelihood that 
there will be ample space in it for the flasks and sand, 
and if there is not, it may be necessary to use the 
foundry floor for storage until the new flasks are 



60 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

brought in. The floor is then in a disorderly, crowded 
state, just when clear space is needed. It is evident 
that the probability of accident is greatly increased 
when such conditions prevail. 

It is important for the foundry yard to be level 
and fairly smooth, and it will pay the owner well to 
put forth every reasonable effort to secure a yard of 
this kind. Material can be handled and stored with 
much greater safety and facility, in a level yard, than 
in one that is sloping or uneven. Foot paths, and 
passageways for wheelbarrows and trucks, can also 
be kept in good condition more easily. 

A considerable part of the space in a yard, par- 
ticularly when it belongs to a jobbing foundry, is 
devoted to the storage of flasks. The flasks should be 
carefully piled, so that they will not fall over, and 
they should also be arranged in an orderly manner, 
according to size, type, or combinations. Attention 
to these details will no doubt consume more time 
than would be required to store the flasks promiscu- 
ously; but the extra time is well worth taking, on 
account of the ease with which the flasks can be lo- 
cated, and the safety with which they can be with- 
drawn when they are again needed in the foundry, — ■ 
to say nothing of the greater safety that proper storing 
insures, during the intervening period. If the flasks 
are heaped up in disorderly piles, or stored in other 
indiscriminate ways, accidents are likely to happen 
when the workmen are endeavoring to extricate one 
that is more or less buried or hidden. If the partic- 
ular flask required cannot be located readily, a less 
desirable one is used, or a makeshift is hastily con- 
structed. In the foundry these misfit flasks often cause 



THE FOUNDRY YARD 

Courtesy of the General Electric Company. 



61 




Fig. 18. Dangerous Loading of a Car Used for 
Transporting Foundry Material. 

burns, many of which could be avoided if more system 
were used in storing the flasks in the yard, so that 
the right one could be found without delay. 

When materials or equipment are stored or piled 
by the side of car tracks, a clear space of not less than 
six feet should be maintained between the tracks and 
the piles. Workmen engaged in the movement of 
cars, or other employees who are obliged to use the 
car tracks in the performance of their work, are likely 
to be caught and killed, or severely injured, unless 
ample clearance is provided. 



62 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

At all places where railroad tracks cross roadways, 
runways, or footways, planks should be nailed down be- 
tween the rails and at both sides of them, or other 
equivalent measures should be taken, to provide a 
smooth passageway over the rails for wagons, trucks, 
or barrows, as well as for foot passers. This greatly 
facilitates the crossing of the tracks, and it also 
reduces, in large measure, the shocks to which loads 
would otherwise be subjected, and the consequent 
danger of material falling off and injuring the men. 
The planks (or their equivalent) should be flush with 
the rails, however, and they should come snugly up 
to the rails on the outside, and as close to them, 
on the inside, as the flanges of the car wheels will 
permit. Warning signs should be posted at all cross- 
ings, and the men engaged in car movements should 
always blow a whistle or sound a gong or bell as the 
cars approach a crossing. 

Whenever tracks or roadways are depressed, they 
should be guarded by substantial railings. Furnace 
pits and excavations of all kinds should also have effec- 
tive protection of the same nature. 

All manholes should be kept covered with wooden 
tops, or with covers made safe by the use of non-slip 
material or by being checkered with a raised pattern; 
and the covers should be set as nearly flush with the 
surrounding surfaces as possible. Many serious injuries 
have resulted from workmen slipping on smooth, v/et 
manhole covers of iron or steel, and from tripping over 
covers projecting above the level of the floor or the 
ground. When it is necessary to remove a cover, a 
guard rail should be placed about the hole immediately, 
and a danger signal secured to the guard rail. 



THE FOUNDRY YARD 63 

Sand bins and coke bins, particularly those con- 
structed of wood, often get badly out of repair. The 
boards become warped and bulge out under the weight 
of their contents, and they often split or crack in such a 
way as to present dagger-like points, or slivers, that are 
likely to catch the unwary workman, especially at night 
or during late afternoons in winter months, when the 
light is poor. 

Good, serviceable walks should be provided 
throughout the yard. If the walks are conveniently 
located and are kept in good order, the workmen will 
use them; but if these conditions are not fulfilled, the 
men will climb over scrap piles or under cars, in order 
to "make a short cut." Cinder paths are no doubt the 
most serviceable for foundry yards. Loosely-laid 
boards are continually getting out of place, and they 
are also likely to become warped so that they will not 
lie flat. Boards often warp enough to split, even 
when they are nailed down; and in such cases they 
may constitute a more or less dangerous tripping haz- 
ard to the workmen. 

The safest way to store pig iron is to stow it in 
bins, or pile it up in neat stacks. This is more costly, 
however, than throwing it down promiscuously in 
piles, and hence the safer methods are often neglected. 
Electromagnetic cranes are coming into wide use for 
handling pig iron, and although they are very con- 
venient, they have serious drawbacks when regarded 
from the safety standpoint, and their hazards should be 
clearly understood and carefully avoided. When the 
electromagnet is used no one should be permitted 
to stand, walk, or work near the path followed by 
the magnet, because any interruption of the electric 



64 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

service, from the opening of a switch, the blowing of a 
fuse, the short-circuiting of the magnet coil, or any oth- 
er cause, will instantly let the whole load drop. Some- 
times, too, a pig is barely held by the magnet, so that 
the least jar will break its contact and allow it to fall. 

Safety, neatness, and convenience may be secured 
by constructing stout bins and dividing them into com- 
partments, preferably of one-car capacity each, in 
which the pig iron can be deposited by the magnet 
crane, — always provided the dangers incident to the 
use of the magnet are borne in mind and avoided. 
When the iron is piled high in loose, irregular heaps, 
there is danger of one or more of the pigs becoming 
free and tumbling down upon workmen. This hazard 
is avoided when substantial bins are employed. 

In many foundry yards boxes and barrels are used 
to store worn-out tools, small scrap material, discarded 
lumber, and other rubbish. It will materially assist in 
keeping the yard in a neat, safe condition, if the barrels 
or boxes used for this purpose are kept in convenient 
places, because the men are then more likely to make 
use of them. It is important, too, to keep all such 
receptacles in good order. It is not uncommon to see 
the ragged edge of a worn-out shovel blade, or some 
other discarded tool, sticking out menacingly over the 
edge of a box or barrel. Heaping up the scrap so that 
it stands high above the receptacles, or allowing it to 
project over the edges of them as just described, should 
be prohibited, because careless habits of this kind in- 
crease the dangers about the yard and invite injury, 
especially at night. 

Barrel hoops are frequently left lying about, and 
when a workman steps on such a hoop it is likely tc 



THE FOUNDRY YARD 65 

swing up and strike him smartly, often causing acute 
pain, or perhaps producing an actual abrasion or lesion, 
if it contains a sharp nail. This particular hazard may 
be taken as representative of a large class of others that 
are seemingly trivial in nature, but which are well 
worthy of attention in the aggregate. These minor 
accidents are often attended by grave consequences, 
not only because the}^ may be followed by septic poison- 
ing, but also because the^^ frequently occur when the 
workman is engaged at some important task involving 
the safety of himself or others. Coming at such a 
time they take him by surprise, and they are likely to 
make his attention lapse momentarily from the work 
in hand, — perhaps with disastrous results. A book 
might be written about the big consequences of little 
things. 

When old castings and other metal objects are bro- 
ken up the work should preferably be done in the yard. 
A "skull-cracker" or "yard-drop" is usually employed 
for breaking these objects, and this consists of a derrick 
or hoist which lifts a heavy metal ball and drops it 
on the castings. Pieces of the objects are likely to fly 
in all directions when the weight falls on and breaks 
them, and all persons in the immediate vicinity are en- 
dangered b}^ these pieces. Every skull-cracker should 
therefore be entirely surrounded by a substantially con- 
structed fence, barricade, or inclosure, of sufficient 
height to protect persons working in the vicinit}^, and 
all passers-by, from injury from flying fragments of 
metal. In addition, a suitable shelter-house should be 
provided for the operator of the skull-cracker and his 
helpers, and all these persons should go into the shelter- 
house before the ball is raised. A safety drop-hook 



66 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

should be used to prevent premature or accidental 
dropping of the ball, if the weight is held by mechan- 
ical means; and if an electro-magnet is employed to 
raise and hold the weight, the utmost care should be 
taken to keep the electrical circuits and devices in per- 
fect condition. All gears, sprockets, and other dangerous 
moving parts of the skull-cracker should be covered or 
otherwise rendered harmless by the installation of stand- 
ard guards. 



INDEX 

Accident in foundries, the causes of, 1. 

Acid burns, protection against, 5. 

Air, compressed, as employed in foundries, 52. 

accidents caused by misusing, 52. 
Annealing chains and hooks, 44. 
Aprons, rubber and leather, 5. 

Barrels, tumbling, wet and dry, 47. 

guards for, 48. 
Bins, sand and coke, dangers of, 63. 
Boots, rubber, 5. 
Bot, the proper use of the, 30. 
Brakes, crane, testing, 40. 
Braking, dynamic, for cranes, 37. 
Buggy ladles. — See Ladles. 
Bull ladles. — See Ladles; Shanks; Clamps. 
Bumpers for cranes, 36. 

Burns the most common injuries in foundries, 1. 
— See also Add burns. 

Carbon monoxide in cupolas, 34. 
Castings, old, method of breaking up, 65. 
Chains, responsibility for selection of, 41. 

and hooks, inspecting and annealing, 44. 
Chipping department, accidents in the, 50. 
Clamps for bowls of bull ladles, 9. 
Clearance beside car tracks, 61. 
Clinkers, crucibles damaged by, 29. 
Clothing, suitable, for foundry workers, 1. 
Crane operators, duties of, 39. 

under repairs, precautions for, 44. 

ladles. — See Ladles. 
Cranes, traveling, safeguards for, 35. 

electromagnetic, dangers of, 63. 



68 Index 

Crucibles, the safe handling of, 19. 

material for, 19. 

improve with age, 20. 

records of heats taken from, 21. 

inspection, storage, and annealing of, 22. 

"soaking", 22. 

"alligator cracks" in, 24. 

care in filling, 25. 

injured by tongs and shanks, 26. 

the number of heats taken from, 26. 

danger of leaving metal in bottom of, 30. 
Cupola, gate for charging-opening of, 32. 
Cupolas, proper method of tapping-out, 30. 

precautions to be taken when refining, 32, 33. 

explosions in, 33. 

charging, lighting-up, and warming-up, 35. 

Damper in blast pipe, 34. 
Doors, explosion, for cupolas, 34. 
Dust hazard in sand-blasting, 53. 

from tumbling barrels, methods for removing, 47. 
Drops. — See Skull-crackers. 

Electricity, guarding against shocks and burns from, 50. 

Elevators in foundries, 31. 

Emery wheels. — See Grinding wheels. 

Employees, new, instruction of, 12. 

Explosion doors for cupolas, 34. 

Explosions in cupolas, 33. 

Eye-protectors for foundrymen, 3, 4, 50. 

Fenders for cranes, 36. 
Flasks and molds, 16. 

iron and steel, superior to wooden, 16. 
storage of, 18, 60. 
Floors, concrete and brick, prevent spills, 8. 
Foot-walks on crane bridges and runwaj's, 36. 
Foundry, jobbing, 59. 

repetition, 59. 

yard, the, 58. 
Furnaces, oil, for heating crucibles, 25. 

Garments. — See Clothing. 

Gas. — See Carbon monoxide. 

Gears on geared ladles to be completely inclosed, 5. 

Glass, prism, for use in foundries, 57. 



Index 69 



Glasses, safety. — See Eye-protectors. 
(iloves for use in foundries, 4. 
Goggles. — See Eye-protectors. 
Gongs, signal, for cranes, 42. 
Grinding wheels, guards for, 52. 

Hand-leathers, 4. 

Helmets for sand-blasters, 53. 

Hoisting apparatus, care of, 47. 

— See also Cranes, traveling; Elevators, 
Hook, crane, method of applying, to load, 41. 
Hooks, crane, with safety handles, 41. 

and chains, inspecting and annealing, 44. 

safety, for skull-crackers, 65. 
I loops, barrel, dangers of, 64. 

Illumination in foundries, 56. 
Injuries in foundries, the causes of, 1. 
Iron, pig, storage of, 63. 

scrap and pig, safety in handling, 31. 

Jokes, practical, with compressed air, 53. 

Kiiaki. — See Clothing. 

Ladles, motor-operated, guards for, 5. 

foundry, types of, 5. 

geared, locking device for, 7. 

crane, precautions in connection with, 7. 

sulky and buggy, cause many accidents, 7. 

bull, styles of shank-handles for, 9. 

single-hand, guards for, 10. 

proper method of filling, 12. 

proper balancing of, 12. 

damp, explosions caused by, 14. 

relining, drying, and storing, 16. 

— See also Prong guards; Trolley systems. 
Lamps, electric, suitable for foundries, 57. 
Leave-overs, proper disposition of, 14. 
Leggings, suitable, for foundry workers, 2. 
Lenses. — See Eye-protectors. 
Lighting. — See Illumination. 
Limit-stops, hoist, for cranes, 37. 

Manholes, safe covers for, 62. 

Molding machines, automatic, guards for, 50. 



70 Index 

Molds and flasks, 16. 

Orderliness in foundry yards, advantages of, 64. 
Overalls. — See Clothing. 

Passages, width of, between rows of flasks, 17. 
Pickling processes, rubber gloves required for, 4. 
Prong guards for buggy ladles, 9. 

Railroad tracks in foundry yards, 62. 

Rattlers. — See Barrels, tumbling. 

Respirators. — See Helmets. 

Riding on crane loads prohibited, 42. 

Run-outs, 17. 

Runways for buggy ladles, 7. 

Safety-valves for cupolas, 34. 
Sand-blasting, precautions in, 53. 
Sand mixers and sifters, guards for, 49. 

types of, 49. 
Screen guard for use when relining cupola, ?i2. 
Shanks for bull ladles, 9. 
Shields for hand ladles, 10. 

to intercept flying chips, 52. 
Shirts. — See Clothing. 

Shoes, congress, best for foundry workers, 2. 
Signals for elevators, 31. 

code of, for directing movements of crane, 43. 
— See also Gongs. 
Skull-crackers, guards for, 65. 
Sleeves should be worn outside of gauntlets, 4. 
Slings, responsibility for selection of, 41. 

the safe angle of, 46. 

to be locked up when not in use, 46. 

protecting, at sharp corners of heavy objects, 46. 

wire-rope, preferable to chain slings, 45. 
lubricating, 45. 

— See also Chains and hooks. 
Stops, hoist-limit, for cranes, 37. 

on crane runways, 36. 
Sulky ladles. — See Ladles. 
Switches, safety, for cranes, 37. 

Tapping-out. — See Cupolas. 
Tongs, types of, 27. 

suitable, importance of using, 27. 



Index 71 



Tongs, bent, method of re-shaping, 29. 
Tools, defective, should not be used, 52. 
Trolley systems for transporting ladles, 9. 
Tumbling barrels. — See Barrels, tumbling. 

Walks in foundry yards, 63. 

Wiring for cranes to be installed in conduits, 37. 

Woodwork about cranes, fire hazard of, 38. 

Yard, foundry, the 58. 
Yard-drops, guards for, 65. 



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